Ancient Spring Tunnels of Jerusalem, Israel: Physical, Spatial, and Human Aspects

About 210 spring tunnels were developed in Israel, most of them within its central mountain range and especially in the Jerusalem Hills. This phenomenon probably first appeared in Israel during Iron Age II, around the 8th century BCE. Spring tunnels are associated with the development of irrigated agricultural systems, landscape design and the establishment of rural settlements. This study presents for the first time a comprehensive statistical picture of this phenomenon, with particularly emphasis on the Jerusalem Hills. We have analysed statistically 21 different parameters of two types of springs in the Jerusalem Hills: 70 with tunnels and 60 without tunnels. The selected parameters fall into three categories: (1) geological-geomorphological (formation, surface slope and group, dip); (2) physical-hydrological (precipitation, discharge, etc.); (3) spatial (dispersion, springs elevation ASL, etc.). The results of this study emphasise the spatial aspects of this phenomenon, especially the accessibility to the Old City of Jerusalem. In addition, there is a clear connection between the karstic aquifer overlying the Moza geological formation and the spring tunnels. This study highlights the physical advantages of Jerusalem’s hinterland at the eastern sections of the Soreq and Refaim river basins, consistent with the rich archaeological record in these areas.