Core and linkage formulation work: understanding the scope of consultants' policy formulation roles and what drives their policy influence

Private market consultants are involved in policy formulation across jurisdictions. However, their policy roles and impact differ significantly across contexts. This chapter presents a conceptual framework to distinguish between their various policy formulation roles and the potential impact they might have on policy in each. Primarily, the distinction is between "core" policy roles, which pertain to the work that "actually makes policy" (Howlett et al., 2020, p. 93), and "linkage" roles, which are about connecting policymakers and bureaucrats with the broader policy subsystem. The entrance and institutionalization of consultants in these roles can depend on various triggers and policy-subsystem level conditions, including major administrative reforms policy crises, and periods of mistrust between elected politicians and their bureaucracy. Based on this discussion, the chapter proposes future research directions, through which we can expand our knowledge on what might make governments especially susceptible to excessive influence of consulting firms.