Diverse biological responses to different cardiotonic steroids

Cardiotonic steroids (CS) such as ouabain, digoxin and bufalin, are steroidal drugs prepared from the seeds and dried leaves of the genus Digitalis, and the skin and parotid gland of amphibians, are used as a cardiac stimulant. Steroids similar or identical to the cardiotonic steroids were identified in human tissues. The available literature unequivocally supports the notion that these endogenous CS function as hormones in mammals. Recent studies show that although similar in structure, the different CS exhibit diverse biological responses. This was shown at the molecular, cellular, tissue and whole animal levels. This review summarizes these diversities, raises a possible explanation for their presence and discusses their implication on the physiological role of the different steroids.