Hydrochemistry of the main Jordan River sources: Dan, Banias, and Kezinim springs, north Hula Valley, Israel

Monitoring the hydrological and chemical characteristics of the Dan, Banias, and Kezinim springs, in the north Hula Valley, at the foothills of Mount Hermon, revealed distinct hydrological and chemical features. Kezinim Spring, the warmest (19.6-20.4 °C) and most saline (TDS = 406-504 mg/L), has a stable discharge (23.6 ± 2.4 × 10⁶ m³/y) and chemical composition, suggesting that it is fed by diffusive flow. Dan Spring, which is colder (15.0-16.2 °C) and the most dilute (TDS = 230-320 mg/L), has a high discharge (255 ± 39 × 10⁶ m³/y) and mild recession in the dry summers (t₀ = 14.3) with an inverse correlation between discharge and TDS. These characteristics indicate a large and distant reservoir, mostly of conduit (karstic) flow pattern. Banias Spring is the most variable of the three springs; its chemical composition and discharge change seasonably between dilute (14.4 °C; TDS = 247 mg/L), "Dan-like" composition and large discharge (8.7 m³/month) in the winter and spring, and a saline (16.1 °C; TDS = 380 mg/L), "Kezinim-like" small discharge (1.2 m³/month) in the fall. Thus, two significant flow patterns contribute to the Banias: A karstic source, dominating the winter and spring discharge, which is consumed before the summer ends, and a diffusive source, steadily adding its discharge throughout the year, and clearly evident as an end member in the fall.