Ruminative thinking: Lessons learned from cognitive training

Impairments in cognitive processes have been theorized to play a critical role in rumination, a well-established risk factor for depression. In this review, we outline central theories that present cognitive impairments as causal contributors to ruminative thinking and review relevant findings from cross-sectional and prospective studies. We then focus on experimental evidence gathered within the paradigm of cognitive bias modification (CBM). Although CBM has generated considerable interest in relation to anxiety and depression, it has only recently emerged in the field of rumination. After considering the purpose and possible advantages of CBM procedures, we review CBM work related to rumination and discuss key limitations and implications within this developing area of research. Among our recommendations, we outline ways to contrast and integrate cognitive theories of rumination, as well as to obtain stronger bias modification procedures.