Smallholder perspectives on agrivoltaics in Nepal: Framing adoption under constraint

Context: Agrivoltaic systems (AVS), which combine agricultural production with solar energy generation, are increasingly promoted as a dual-use response to land, energy, and climate pressures. Yet, in low-income, smallholder-dominated settings like Nepal, AVS uptake remains limited. Understanding how farmers perceive and evaluate such technologies is essential for inclusive and feasible implementation. Objective: This study investigates how smallholder farmers in Nepal initially evaluate and conceptualize the conditions necessary for adopting agrivoltaic systems (AVS). Drawing on a conceptual framework combining Post-Normal Science and the Social-Ecological Systems framework, it analyzes farmer-generated suggestions for enhancing AVS accessibility and examines how these are shaped by household characteristics, structural constraints, and differing perceptions of risk and institutional trust. Methods: A structured survey was conducted with 265 smallholder farmers in Nepal's Jhapa district. The study included open-ended questions on improving AVS accessibility, a measure of willingness to participate in a pilot project, and socioeconomic indicators. Qualitative responses were thematically coded using a hybrid NLP-assisted and manual process. Correlations were calculated between thematic codes, adoption intent, and household traits. Results and conclusions: Farmers identified five conditions they consider essential for adopting AVS: affordability, access to training, compatibility with existing cropping systems, institutional support, and usability on small plots. These perspectives varied systematically with farmer characteristics. Willingness to participate in a pilot project was high (91 %) but not uniform. Willingness increased with income, education, and land access, and declined with higher aversion to uncertainty. Rather than a uniform readiness, adoption was framed as a conditional and negotiated process, shaped by structural constraints and perceived institutional credibility. Significance: This study challenges assumptions of linear or purely incentive-driven technology adoption by foregrounding the contextual, structural, and interpretive conditions under which smallholders consider AVS viable. It shows that adoption is shaped not only by material resources but by farmers' framings of risk, institutional trust, and system compatibility. Effective AVS implementation in smallholder contexts requires alignment with locally defined priorities, production constraints, and governance expectations.