The conceptualization of helplessness: I. A phenomenological-structural analysis

The present report is the first of a two-part research project focusing on the concept of "helplessness," which applies a phenomenological-structural method for the description of verbal reports of "helplessness" experiences and feelings. In the first study, students were required to describe conditions that they labeled as being "helpless," and feelings, cognitions, and overt responses that they experienced during the reported "helpless" situations. The different subjects' statements were then arranged and grouped into common categories by three independent judges. In the four following studies, students received the content categories arranged in study 1 and were required to estimate their conjoint probability of occurrence. The relations among the different categories were then studied by multidimensional scaling and discriminant analyses. The main results showed that uncontrollability of the outcome is the main characteristic of helplessness situations and feelings. In addition, however, helplessness situations were reported only in relation to unexpected aversive events. Helplessness feelings included a coping attitude and feelings related to loss of self-control. Following the analysis of the relationship among the different helplessness categories, loss of self-control appeared as the core of the helplessness experience. The results are discussed within the context of Seligman's theory of learned helplessness.