Visible expressions of Islam in public space affect Muslim immigrants’ place integration

Western societies are divided over whether public expressions of Islam should be permitted in urban spaces. Some argue such displays prompt withdrawal among Muslim immigrants and undermine their sense of belonging, yet rigorous empirical testing remains limited. Given this empirical gap, this study provides a causal test of the effect of in situ exposure to embedded Islamic symbols on Muslim immigrants’ place-based integration. We conceptualize place integration as a proximal, cue-driven person–environment process, reflected in approach-oriented behavior and attitudinal–perceptual attachment to place. We then evaluate the effect of public Islam using naturalistic field experiments and original surveys with Muslim immigrants in Paris and London. Using a purpose-built augmented reality mobile app, our experiments tracked participants’ movement along identical urban routes, randomly assigning exposure to either Islamic symbols (treatment) or non-religious cues (control) ( N Paris  = 151, N London  = 147). GPS-based behavioral data comprising walking pace, acceleration and brief remaining near the location, show that exposure to Islamic symbols increased approach-oriented behavior ( d Paris  = 0.51, d London  = 0.63, P